What is it about?
This study investigates how very low, regulatory‑range concentrations of antimony(III) [Sb(III)] affect the physiology of human intestinal epithelial cells. Using differentiated Caco‑2 cells to mimic continuous dietary exposure, the research evaluated whether Sb(III) can alter cellular functions throughout the full differentiation period. The results show that Sb(III) activates inflammatory pathways (notably NF‑κB), induces apoptosis through modulation of Bcl‑2, Bax and Caspase‑3, and promotes oxidative stress via increased intracellular ROS production. Additionally, Sb(III) triggers endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress, as indicated by the upregulation of key unfolded protein response markers such as XBP‑1s, GRP78, ATF4, p‑eIF2α and CHOP. The study also shows that ER stress contributes centrally to the observed damage, as treatment with the ER stress inhibitor TUDCA mitigated the Sb‑induced alterations.
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Photo by Teslariu Mihai on Unsplash
Why is it important?
Although antimony is widely used in industrial processes—including the production of PET plastics for food and beverage containers—its molecular toxicity in human intestinal cells is still poorly understood. This study demonstrates that even nanomolar concentrations of Sb(III), below currently allowed regulatory limits, can induce inflammatory responses, apoptosis, oxidative stress and ER stress in intestinal epithelial cells. These mechanisms may contribute to epithelial barrier impairment and highlight potential risks associated with chronic low‑level exposure from food packaging or environmental sources.
Perspectives
The findings suggest the need for deeper evaluation of Sb exposure limits and improved monitoring of its release from consumer products. Future studies should include in vivo models and assess combined exposures with other environmental contaminants, which may exacerbate the observed effects. Further mechanistic analyses could also clarify how ER stress, oxidative imbalance and inflammatory pathways interact in determining Sb‑induced intestinal toxicity.
Prof. Antonio Speciale
University of Messina
Read the Original
This page is a summary of: Continuous exposure to low concentrations of antimony(III) induces inflammation, apoptosis, oxidative and endoplasmic reticulum stress in Caco-2 intestinal epithelial cells, Environmental Research, September 2025, Elsevier,
DOI: 10.1016/j.envres.2025.122001.
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